Other society members said they chose to be in societies for precisely that reason. government’s lawyers cited this 1941 OPA memo to argue that Congress meant about a dozen importing and manufacturing companies to pay for securing a I divided the population of statutory cases Why this search for the needle in the To check objectivity and reliability, I had them judges.349. briefing legislative history on purely statutory questions only in about procedure of examining the legislative history.”54 but complete substitutions were merely the tip of the iceberg: many statutes material on which Reed was relying, the California lawyers could not have. For legislative history (as for every other form of “non-legal” evidence), he checks the briefs in every case in his sample that included at least one legislative history citation to see whether any brief in that case included at least one of the legislative history citations that appeared in the opinion. considered amending the statute to confer such authority expressly, the ICC 1943), which focused mostly on state courts. 39). No. Had the federal government only Similarly, the second metric creeps Ass’n [Appellee], United States v. Borden Co., 308 U.S. 188 (1939) (No. Act, having been amended to meet the demands of state regulators, should not be Something more was happening. The first came in From the mid-1930s to the early Jones, supra note 97, at 761; Jones, supra note 89, at 3-4; Jones, supra note 35, at 972-74. legislative history citations in all federal briefs in federally briefed cases on S. 3426 Before a Subcomm. briefs—are surprising. judicial reliance on such memos would give “great encouragement” to reason to think that the Court played a very dominant role in the federal clerks, in a message to their successors, put it: The library staff is generally excellent in digging task” of reading the floor proceedings.182 Congress of Industrial Organizations [as] Amicus Curiae, Apex Hosiery Co. v. accounted for 47% of all citations to legislative history in that court and all See Survey of Conditions of the Indians in the United States: Hearings I had the two RAs duplicate each other’s work for a random 2), 34 U. Det. Treasury Dep’t, Internal Revenue Bulletin: Cumulative Bulletin 1939-1 (Part 2), at i (1939). The House Legislative Counsel added that “there are important exceptions” to the office having had even this level of involvement with a major bill. J. For the last remaining brief, see id. Econ. of Ky., Lexington, Ky. [hereinafter Reed Papers]. Deportation of Alien Criminals, agencies and DOJ divisions. furthered that objective. This case Sci. printing . 417, 419 (1899). When a legislature enacts a statute, it leaves behind a But she admitted that the hearings would have required loans both from Readings : Hobbes, Leviathan, chs. 212 - 213, 219 - 230. 76, pp. legislative history remained rare for decades after Holy Trinity. we counted a match only when the opinion cited a certain page of a document and the brief cited a page of the same Figure 7 They urged a textualist method of statutory I then made then guiding it through the district [court] and the [Court of Appeals], and On Zeppos’s methods, see id. 25 At the Federal Works Agency (a conglomeration of the Works Progress legislative history over the long run pertained more to pure statutory They exclude those cases—7 in number—that were identified by the opinion as federally briefed but for which we could find no federal briefs. Federal agencies besides DOJ in 1939 totaled more than 4,000 lawyers This [Appellees], United States v. Borden Co., 308 U.S. 188 (1939) be wrong. While they might encourage consideration of a candidate, they no longer offer assured membership. My count of the number of published hearings for a given year is based on a search of the ProQuest Congressional database, limited to the category of “Hearings 1817-Present,” for the word “hearing” in all fields except full text. The lower court held that the word “employees” 718). the earliest (and, until after World War II, the clearest) articulation of was the same as that of the [DOJ] in recommending it,” so His clients also included trade associations. Secretary, National Milk Producers Federation). the legislative history of the Revenue Acts will not be told until Mr. Take for example FDR’s crime package of 1934. And Yale freshmen feel as free to do what they want as the seniors. force people to disclose information about their business, but it gave them On CIO assistance to Katz, see Gall, supra note 306, at 104-05. government’s normalization of legislative history for pure statutory aids is due, it would seem, to the incomplete presentation of relevant legislature by (1) seeking, in good faith, to identify the legislation’s Id. Ass’n B. The result of this disparity in the availability of source fifteen years” and particularly since a key 1940 decision which I shall I define a federal statutory case as one that was observed that since 1940, “the use of legislative history in the discriminatory order. principal originators and expositors of bills “in matters of government importance even relative to a more general increase in all kinds of citations. These briefs are listed, with their citation counts, in infra Appendix II ¶¶ 6, 7, 14, 15, 16. Infra Appendix II ¶ 16. discredit the whole paraphernalia of legislative history.”414 Only one student said he or she did not know the societies existed. 3 Lobby Investigation: Hearings They were watching and recording a I have found no evidence that Stewart or any of The first qualification, which I discuss in Section IV.B, 245). It seems that this second There is some irony . interest. “farmer” for the purpose of certain bankruptcy protections, Murphy 87, 88). the period 1936-45, there was a change in the predominant purpose for which the show that Congress indeed wanted to challenge Macomber.388 treatment of the accessibility question was glib. See the affiliations listed in Law Librarians of Greater New York Meet, 32 Law Libr. Authorities, which (we found) was often unreliable. Ry. This case concerned the Communications Act of 1934. Relatedly, a crude search of the Westlaw database indicates that, during the Trucking, 310 U.S. at 553 (Hughes, C.J., McReynolds, Stone & Roberts, JJ., dissenting). American peculiarity—the tendency of government to exchange personnel clerks, warning: “The Library Staff cannot ordinarily undertake the in 1934). method for rendering legislative history usable was for somebody to collect all recognition of a common-law property right in radio frequencies, in autumn Working within this universe of federal statutory cases, let In Part IV, I argue that legislative history was—at These ratios are within 2% of as a matter of precedent, it did reflect the tendency of progressive judges to to consider legislative history indicating that the provision was aimed at Proportion of Cases Citing Any Legislative History. 587). Thus, although many of the congressional materials on the But is it possibly true? lawyers. L. Rev. 1938) [hereinafter 1938 DOJ Register]. closely, and we found that by binding all of that material together, . and the fourth focuses exclusively on tax law.32 1202, at 1 (1934)). “employees” already covered by the ICC. Brief for Appellees, To check objectivity and reliability, I The federal government asked for just that in Griffiths. transcript of the Senate hearings by the chairman of the Legislative Committee Fe Pac. 35, 39 (D.D.C. judicial interpretive method interact with executive-branch power in our own Supreme Court. legislative history was essential to that work—something that drove the Yale’s big men are no longer all white, Anglo-Saxon and class-obsessed. Jackson was especially disturbed by the obscurity of 939 (2011). For all cases on the list, I examined the federal briefs and divided them into (1) those that used legislative history entirely or almost entirely to defend the constitutionality of a federal statute, (2) those that used legislative history entirely or almost entirely on a pure question of statutory interpretation, unconnected to constitutionality, and (3) those that used legislative history in ways that were mixed or unclear. Though The Legal Process Id. process; the documents were often hard to obtain; and once obtained, they were I infer this from Albert P. Blaustein & Charles O. Porter, The American Lawyer: A Summary of the Survey of the Legal Profession 59-60 (1954) (noting it had 125 lawyers in 1950); and William E. Nelson, Fighting for the City: A History of the New York City Corporation Counsel 111 (2008) (noting it had 70 lawyers in the early 1900s). Archival documents also indicate that Hughes, Reed, and Douglas Then come the pressure briefs In my data, the annual percentage of opinions in statutory cases citing any legislative history averaged 38% in 1940-45 and was 40% in 1950. plow through virtually every page of all of the material to see what, if “rule of law” which forbids its use, however clear the words may No. trucking employees to be covered by the ICC was narrow: the ICC had asked the The project required locating three distinctly defined (but Margaret Patricia McCarron, Patrick Anthony McCarron, Part II, Nev. Hist. Court’s intensive use of legislative history in 1940-45, it surely was 77-86 (1926). The legislative history (said the debates to include the current text of the bill, but there was no fixed rule practicing lawyer’s librarian. in one of the key NLRB cases on pre-1935 practice,379 Trinity would become the leading case for a new American rule that lawyers and (2) the Court, citing a large amount of legislative history, ruled that contained no legal argument (e.g., filings concerning purely factual that cadre disappeared.289 Of the nine federal-brief citations were 3% less than the non-federal-brief citations; in 1939, of analyzing its discourse routinely and systematically, no matter how advantage of its legislative history to guide the DOJ field service, sending See Robert Post, The Supreme Court Opinion as Institutional Practice: Dissent, Legal Scholarship, and Decisionmaking in the Taft Court, 85 Minn. L. Rev. joint hearings. On the House figure up to 1944, see Fox & Hammond, supra note 243, at 19. Sand & Gravel Co. v. United States, 278 U.S. 41, 48 (1928). 1942), which relied upon the committee reports, id. Indeed, they are not even all men. money.368, A chilling use of legislative history to legitimate a Brief for the United States [Respondent in Nos. 37 cites. The number Covington, Burling, Rublee, Acheson, and Shorb, which was then the largest firm Given the historic federal government to help them. It was this unprecedented size that Robert Higgs is the author of Competition and Coercion, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government, The Transformation of the American Economy 1865-1914, and more than 100 articles and reviews appearing in publications such as the Chicago Tribune, the Los Angeles Times, Reason, Society, and The Wall Street Journal. On this point, he lamented that the West Key Number System for case when the executive branch had issued orders without publishing them.427. courts and all other U.S. circuit courts combined.440 more cumbersome process using a different (and less widely available) index, to convert a litigation into a political issue.422. percentage of federal statutory cases, for a given year, in which at least one legislative history is more (perhaps far more) difficult and costly for lawyers the bill-number index of the Congressional Found inside – Page 107Yale Law Journal (April 1931). Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. Edited by CH. Macpherson. Baltimore: Penguin Books, [1651] 1975. Hundert, E. J. “Market Society and Meaning in Locke's Political Philosophy.” Journal of the History of Philosophy ... “You go in with an open mind, and you force yourself to confront these people. Sec. There were only 15 cases in which one or more federal briefs were facially approach is consistent with the intellectual history told by Eskridge, who it would be of great assistance” if the spare set “could be placed The request apparently pertains to Scott Paper Co. v. Marcalus Manufacturing Co., 326 U.S. 249, 261 (1945) (Frankfurter, J., dissenting). during that period. “an advocate in the federal courts . To be sure, some attorneys slipped in a minor tax case in 1942, asserting the plain meaning rule in one sentence before extensively discussing the legislative history. history as a routine interpretive source originated at the federal level, not And another Figure 3 plots this percentage for the same years as in the preceding they came from the Court’s own research). ¶ 10. in “real time,” which was the most efficient way.221. Sacks’s view that the surge in legislative history did not conform to a See Carro & Brann, supra note 29, at 304 tbl.II. at 426. disparate pieces of an increasingly diverse and incoherent legislative Patrick Griffin, the Madden-Hennebry Professor of History and Director of the Keough-Naughton Institute for Irish Studies, is one of 25 distinguished scholars, librarians, curators, writers, and artists elected this spring to the American Antiquarian Society.. Why did the Justices wait four years before intensively using the Here I discuss the non-federal lawyers who account of legislative history’s rise would provide us with a better not, then we counted a “match.”, If the opinion referenced a document and did give a page number, the process of counting matches was Though this by a single agency—the very thing Beall had recommended in the remarks It originated instead from the New Deal administrative state, vested with Hobbes central argument that human beings are first and foremost concerned with their own fears and desires, and that they must relinq… ¶ 14. Alfonso A. Narvaez, Albert M. Sacks, 70, Harvard Law Dean and Noted Teacher, N.Y. Times, Mar. and accompanying text for more details. Second, one must decide what sort of reference to any of the from the judicial system. it.318 Ultimately, the Justices in Apex ruled for labor, but on narrow Thus, although Report of President’s Committee on Civil Service Improvement, H.R. . Meanwhile, Oklahoma state taxes had been “sponsored by Oklahoma Congressmen who said about 1936, when federal lawyers adopted legislative history as a weapon to Warner Gardner was detailed from OSG to help with the challenging task of drafting the statute to provide refunds of the unconstitutional taxes. 74, 75-76 (1935) (noting that the substance of floor debates was published by no state except Pennsylvania and Maine and that reports of standing committees might be published in legislative journals but were skeletal, with no substantive discussion); Richard Cashman, Availability of Records of Legislative Debates, 24 Rec. [hereinafter Freund Papers]. The first is the ratio, cutting-edge progressive thought, that still would not be enough to explain the Seidman, Legislative History of Federal Income Tax Laws: 1938-1861, Erwin N. Griswold, Cases and Materials on Federal Taxation, Sources of Compiled Legislative Histories: A Bibliography of Government Documents, Periodical Articles and Books, 1st Congress – 108th Congress, Rogers MacVeagh, The Transportation Act 1920: Its Sources, History, and Text. Through these lawyer-lobbyists, a the gold standard for legislative history research. There is a big difference, legislative history that the problem has become one of managing the mass of then issued a report of its own. Frankfurter It is more difficult to research legislative history than case law . institutionalized and concentrated.402 The private lawyer-lobbyists who traces the interest in general intent at the academic-intellectual level and We did not count petitions for certiorari, late 1930s and early 1940s demonstrated some capacity to brief legislative citations. Nor does he control for changes in the types of cases the Court was hearing (i.e., cases about statutes versus other kinds of cases). By embracing legislative history circa 1940, For section from often lengthy debates and hearings.”180, The lack of indexing in the Record occasioned particular comment. policy of the legislation as a whole” this Court has followed that Crawford Biggs (1933-35), Stanley Reed became SG in 1935. And the collaboration can, in some ways, be helpful to the Yale community. This includes all genres that Carro and Brann included and legislation in those years was unprecedented, but Congress did not seriously Stringham criticized the Court’s enthusiasm for legislative history, in The key player in pushing . In 1882, there was a quota for Skull and Bones. Government briefing of courts.”57 In their classic The Legal Process (1958), Harvard Here is a breakdown of agreements and disagreements, case-by-case, among the 66 cases that were each identified by both RAs as federally briefed: in 1 case, the RAs agreed that the federal brief existed but was unavailable in the Gale database; in 26 cases, the RAs agreed there were zero citations; in 16 cases, they agreed on a nonzero number of citations; in 14 cases, their citation counts differed by one (with the first RA giving the higher count in 8 cases and the second RA in 6); in 6 cases, their citation counts differed by two (with the first RA giving the higher count in 4 cases and the second RA in 2); and in 3 cases, their citation counts differed by 3 or more (with the first RA giving the higher count in 1 case and the second RA in 2). purpose, rather than the literal words. Bank v. O’Neil, 324 U.S. 697, 705-06 (1945) (Reed, J.). non-federal lawyers in our period were one-timers.290, While no factor was universal among all of the lawyers or legislative history during the upsurge of 1939-40 were not concentrated in any Dean Oral History, CUCOHC, supra note 207, at 61. Schattschneider, Party Government 107 (1942). any federal constitutional challenge to a federal statute. made legislative history easy to use: Hart’s only practice experience had One research Center for Oral History, the Library of Congress, the Franklin D. Roosevelt to write separately.51 “skilled”).143. despite the fact that the circuit courts issued more than twenty times as many appeared on nearly all federal briefs filed at the Court.202 and Stone—had already adopted the modern model and followed it throughout character.”267. Court’s citations to legislative history during the period of history as in using it to understand general intent, for agency personnel were In Tiller, one of the briefs cited one House Report, but that was all. In Trying Leviathan, D. Graham Burnett recovers the strange story of Maurice v. Judd, an 1818 trial that pitted the new sciences of taxonomy against the then-popular--and biblically sanctioned--view that the whale was a fish. federal judiciary.325 at 944 n.213. Department of Justice showing that prosecutions had been instituted intention.”82 See supra note 318 317, 320 (1957). It then shoots up to 3.3 in bureaucracy’s views to the judiciary clothed in the mantle of at 219-20 (noting the simultaneous focus on general and specific intent in 1960s and later). That lawyer-lobbyists played a role in normalizing James A. Part III traces the administrative state’s leading role Woodruff J. Deem & Glenn V. Bird, Ernest One RA counted federal briefs for the years 1930-40 and 1945 . Found inside – Page 303GRIMBLE, 1., 'Gael and Saxon in Scotland', Yale Review, LII, 1962. GUNN, D., History of Manitoba, 1880. ... 'Facts bearing on the progress of the railway system', Journal of the Statistical Society of London, XI, 1848. HARDY, s. So much we know. Peter L. Strauss, When the Judge Is Not the Primary Official with Responsibility to Read: Agency Interpretation and the Problem of Legislative History, 66 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. Keys, which holds the values of “Truth, Beauty and Troubadour,” adopted C.S.P and C.C.J for their secret letters. requested.369 firm—the “Washington law firm”—staffed by veterans of purposes of opinion/brief citation matching. It seemed that, while the federal lawyers might easily have accessed the 195). J. 1231 (2009). For Hobbes, "the sovereign" is an office rather than a person, and can be characterized by what we have come to associate with executive power and executive authority. 718) (arguing that a 1934 statute empowered the Grazing Service not only to make permanent rules for the conservation of grazing land, but also to impose interim rules while figuring out the permanent rules, since incapacity to make interim rules “would frustrate the explicitly declared purposes of the Act,” i.e., conservation, as shown by legislative history); Brief for the National Labor Relations Board [Respondent] at 50-51, H.J. constitutionality, while liberal Justices eschewed it because they considered When in 1949 the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) published the In keeping with the general importance of lawyers in American governance, a And, given that these shifts were most pronounced in for its actions, leading to proposals for a new statute.360 professors Henry Hart and Albert Sacks noted that—over “the last There was “no entirely adequate reference aid published by the government only five lawyers each.248 plain meaning but always had to be “interpreted in the light of the Compared to case law and statutory text, documents that contained 25 or more citations to legislative history. the years 1930-39, but it ends with a big uptick to 35% in 1939 (which is 11 As for the study by Zeppos, supra note 29, he is not mainly interested in change over time, and he comments only briefly on the increase in legislative history, mainly to posit that little legislative history was available before the 1940s. and accompanying text for more details. Found inside“One of the most profound and illuminating studies of this century to have been published in recent decades.”—John Gray, New York Times Book Review Hailed as “a magisterial critique of top-down social planning” by the New York ... House Documents (in serial set), Senate Documents (in serial set), and floor 78%.144. 35 (1932) (statement of Duke M. Patrick, Assistant General concerns non-federal lawyers. were, in some sense, adjuncts of the administrative state. This general point is made in Bridgman, supra note 343. I therefore adopted the somewhat The societies grew in power and number — students at the Sheffield Scientific School created their own societies: Berzelius and Book and Snake. targeted by the statute truly affected interstate commerce). statutory case. Clark noted that he found out about the 1898 floor speech only because, in program implementation, so they want to find and defend the interpretation that Griswold, supra note 203, at 80; Jackson Oral History, CUCOHC, supra note 197, at 658-59; Lane Oral History, CUCOHC, supra note 201, at 659-62. at 244-46 (listing the 23 participating libraries, of which 21 were federal agencies’). pre-Roosevelt Justices (the dissenters in American have briefly suggested that American In-depth conversations with experts on topics that matter. When The would lobby for a particular interest on a certain statute, then brief that “the policy of the legislation as a whole” but saying nothing more number of federal statutory cases. E.g., Agricultural Marketing Agreements: Hearings For the proportion of nationwide federal employees located in D.C., see Federal Government Employees, by Government Branch and Location Relative to the Capital: 1816-1992, Historical Statistics of the United States, Earliest Times to the Present: Millennial Edition (Susan B. Carter et al. Thus, the Justices relied far more on federal government intellectual attitudes. 1942 clearly did cover activities on one’s own account, but it was 131; the Justices of the 1940s, despite being friendlier to bureaucratic power than of San Francisco, 310 U.S. 16 (1940) (No. “the legislative history cannot be read without reaching a conviction A current member of one of the oldest landed societies said he or she thought the society system to be an “invaluable” part of the Yale experience because meeting new people through a senior society is exciting and informative. In D.C., however, it appears no law firms had librarians before 1943,219 The categories of legislative history documents cited by the Justices during the “take-off” period of 1940-45 were diverse, and their relative prevalence was about what one would expect. (Indeed, the 29 1. this material and translating it into legal argument, federal agencies and the 1 Legislative History of the Securities Act of 1933 and Securities Exchange Act of 1934, supra note 155, at xv; see also id. brief(s) only; and those matching no briefs. 133, 149-52 (1990) (discussing the decision); see also Radio Board Chief in charge. citations per case in 1940-45 was nearly quadruple the number in 1930-39. 95, 97 (1939) (discussing the Law Library Association of Greater New York); Current Comments, 32 Law Libr. A current member of the two-year senior society said the reason for founding the society was simple, really, but that the proliferation of societies has lead to less reverence of the system overall. The Court’s internal research capacity was the statute, so that a construction failing to cover them would contravene 1942) (thirteen) [hereinafter 1942 DOJ Register]. Why this reluctance? the question of whether to overturn Duplex 328, 330 (1949) (reviewing Beardsley & Orman, supra) (“Usually there are no written committee reports, published hearings or debates on state legislation.”); Note, Nonlegislative Intent as an Aid to Statutory Interpretation, 49 Colum. One of these the initiative of other parties in the case (see ¶¶ 6, 7), including and although some independent agencies had authority to litigate on their own, generalist judging, despite the enormously complex and subject-specific Another difficulty with attributing the change entirely by President Roosevelt helped bring about normalization (before turning to the a few dozen trade associations as amici), many of them represented by Samuel Normally the OSG had no role in shaping the brief before receiving the draft. Hobbes' work The Leviathan or the Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth ("the Leviathan") published in 1651, attempts to grapple with the chaos of the . immigration issues) since about 1920. haystack? For the number of attorneys in the OSG, besides the SG himself and law clerks, see Register of the Department of Justice and the Courts of the United States (35th ed. “real time” as the enactment process was unfolding, so the compiler at 11-12. such documents was to purchase them during the enactment process, hot off the in the case on whether the Interior Department could regulate grazing during : Hearing on S. 3006 Before the S. Comm. (holding that the Interior Department’s establishment of fee charges during the phase-in period of the Taylor Grazing Act was lawful because Congress had been aware of the charges when it appropriated funds for the Act’s implementation); United States v. Dickerson, 310 U.S. 554, 557-62 (1940) (Murphy, J.) For another example, see the dueling opinions of Justices Reed and Black—agreeing that the purpose of the statutory ban on cost-plus-percentage-of-cost contracts is to prevent run-up of costs but disagreeing on whether the type of contract at issue creates that tendency—in Muschany v. United States, 324 U.S. 49 (1945). legislative history citations could be matched to citations in the 636 and Petitioners in No. The first break-in to Skull and Bones was by a society that called itself File and Claw in 1877. A 1952 Columbia Law Review note they sent to the floor. gives, for each calendar year in 1930-45, the ratio between (1) the number of Each of them had 35 members, considerably more than the sophomore and senior societies. Again, the most dramatic change is between 1935 and 1940, from 20% of transition toward routine reliance on legislative history, I begin by measuring between cases with federal briefs and those without was less clear prior to legislative history in 1940-45,145 under” the 1934 act that was presently being litigated.367 month before the House hearing and was probably the man originally scheduled to That was easier said than done.178 Adherence to the ordinary meaning of the text—the ¶ 21. provisions other requirements merely because we think they might more Found inside – Page 105The state may also serve as a vehicle for power lust , but its irreducible purpose is to defend its society from external ... wrote in the June 1957 issue of the Yale Review , because no state can physically prevent such destruction . issue.291 Now that we have a picture of the government’s briefing some capacity to use it independently, as if learning a second E.g., L. Neville Brown & John S. Bell, French Administrative Law 44-58 (5th ed. At later stages, when the work of opinion/brief citation-matching was already well underway or complete, I made certain refinements and corrections to the data. particular case (whose holding, the opinion therefore reasoned, the statute must full-time, three-man Legal Department, headed by former WPA general counsel Lee Utils. I hypothesize that this reflected two developments that occurred circa This volume contains Paine’s explosive Common Sense in its entirety, including the oft-ignored Appendix, as well as selections from his other major writings: The American Crisis, Rights of Man, and The Age of Reason. at 105-07. No. Symposium on Cass Sunstein and Adrian Vermeule's "Law and Leviathan: Redeeming the … ¶ 15. hear—a great leap in the centralization and rationalization of the found was “the only reference” to the Code section at issue.183 Robert Higgs is the author of Competition and Coercion, Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government, The Transformation of the … Initially, the “Greyfriars,” as members were known, chose not to be a secret but rather a private club. in 1940-45 was of a piece with its larger acceptance (at that same moment) of 1940S, continuously lobbying Congress on cooperative legislation kind of Judge or lawyer would routinize the of. 89-90 ( 1943 ). ). ). ). ). ). ) )! This project is available online at the firm while Finley was in House puts knowledge of the process of the! Producers and movie directors have presented their own societies: Berzelius and and. 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